Let’s consider some features of arguments. What I’m about to say about arguments may seem technical, but it’s not. You are likely already doing these things when you communicate with others. However, we need to review them to become aware of them when reading the Bible.
- An argument is a sequence of propositions advanced to address a specific problem, some of which state a position while others provide reasons for doing so. In other words, an argument is a statement of one’s position on addressing a specific problem/issue, together with reasons to support that position. Stating a position alone without giving reasons isn’t an argument but an opinion.
- An argument is always a group of statements including one or more premises supporting only one conclusion. It is possible to draw multiple conclusions from the same premises. However, each combination of premise(s) and a single conclusion drawn from the premise(s) forms one argument. In other words, you can make multiple arguments from the same premises. However, at a fundamental level, every argument always consists of two parts: 1) One or more premises and 2) One and only one conclusion (that is drawn based on those premises). The Merriam Webster’s dictionary says, an argument is “a coherent series of reasons, statements, or facts intended to support or establish a point of view.” Adler and Van Doren say the following about arguments:
There are many kinds of reasoning, many ways of supporting what one says. But every sort of argument consists of a number of statements related in a certain way. This is said because of that. The word “because” here signifies a reason being given. An argument is always a set or series of statements of which some provide the grounds or reasons for what is to be concluded. The premises or principles of an argument may not always be stated first, but they are the source of the conclusion, nevertheless. If the argument is valid, the conclusion follows from the premises. That does not necessarily mean that the conclusion is true, since one or all of the premises that support it may be false.
Elsewhere, they note, “Every argument must involve a number of statements. Of these, some give the reasons why you should accept a conclusion the author is proposing. If you find the conclusion first, then look for the reasons. If you find the reasons first, see where they lead.”
- A premise (or ground) is “a proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn.” TheFreeDictionary.com.
- The premises (or grounds) supposedly provide the reasons the author has for thinking the conclusion is true. We say supposedly because the premises could be wrong. Of course, in the Bible, we believe all the premises will be true because God’s word is true. To identify the premises, ask, what evidence or reasons does the author provide for his conclusion? Why does the author think this is the answer or the right way to do it?
- Sometimes, the author assumes the audience knows certain premises and doesn’t state them. These are called unstated/implied premises (unstated assumptions/grounds). Failure to reveal such unstated assumptions may hinder our understanding and assessment of the argument. Unstated premises/assumptions are important for the Bible reader because the author and the original audience have common background information, which we lack. That requires that we read carefully and use background resources where available.
- The conclusion is a proposition that follows from the premises. It is the final statement of the author’s position on an issue.
- Certain connectives, such as connectives of inference (e.g., therefore), ground (e.g., because, due to, and for), and condition (e.g., if this is so, then that), are a sign that the author is presenting an argument. The presence of questions/answers or problem-solution relationships in the text also signals an argument. We discussed these logical relationships in the book survey section, and you should be on the lookout for them. If you see any of these identifying connectives, the author is making an argument. However, one shouldn’t rely on these keywords because authors don’t always use them. They may present the relationships implicitly.
- A paragraph or at least a collection of sentences (or a long sentence) is required to present an argument.
- An argument “is not uniquely related to any recognizable unit of writing, as terms are related to words and phrases, and propositions to sentences. An argument may be expressed in a single complicated sentence. Or it may be expressed in a number of sentences that are only part of one paragraph. Sometimes an argument may coincide with a paragraph, but it may also happen that an argument runs through several or many paragraphs” (Adler and Van Doren).
- Distinguish between inductive and deductive arguments. Inductive arguments are “the kind of argument that points to one or more particular facts as evidence for some generalization.” In contrast, deductive arguments are “the kind that offers a series of general statements to prove some further generalizations.”
- Arguments are evaluated by 1) Determining if the premises are true and 2) if the premises are logically related to the conclusion. It is helpful to evaluate all important arguments, even in the Bible (where the word is truth), because that helps us understand the argument better.
- Arguments may be simple or complex. A complex argument is a larger argument with smaller intermediate or sub-arguments that serve as building blocks for the larger argument. To make a complex argument, intermediate arguments first have to be made whose conclusions will become premises for even further steps in the larger argument. One thing is proved in order to prove another which may, in turn, be used to prove a subsequent point. However, the units of reason are simple arguments, and every multifaceted argument can be summarized into a single argument. If you are reading a book with a multipronged argument, it helps to summarize it as a simple one.
